Working Class Youth and Moral Panic

Why has the nineteenth century been associated with ‘a persistent panic over working class youth’? The events of the nineteenth century have often been described as turning points throughout Europe, the subsequent revolutions of the major powers of Europe led to significant change in the countries involved, additionally industrial revolutions and urbanization led to greater city populations. The question about youth firstly must be defined in a manor easily understood. How persistent the panic was is important in addition to this what panic was there.From the latter part of the 19th century these issues can be discussed with greater authority, and effects drawn more conclusively. ‘Moral panic’ is considered being a concern for the threat of social order or values as Stanley Cohen and Jock Young have emphasised. The context is vital during this period as British output doubled twice in the 19th century between 1830-1852 and 1852-80 which fundamentally changed Britain in a number of ways, before the revolution its estimated ? of the population lived in rural parts.Working longer for less in factories and higher living costs in an increasing urban country left many with very little. The relentless path that factory owners were able to take due to the government’s laissez-faire attitude led to another social change the breakdown of family life, safety was not an issue only profit, women and children worked hard and for little income. It is also argued that England was the world’s first urban nation, and urbanization meant that the majority of people lived in urban areas according to the consensus of 1861, an inevitable factor in a growing power.The aspects that caused panic- and/or ‘moral panic’- are also an important aspect as well as what led to the reactions of politicians and how the public reacted to youth, which could often be a product of journalism at the time. It should also be explained there was no dis tinct youth pre 1850’s, children entered adult life as soon as possible working in the various industries. And now there was a growing consciousness of not only the working class but of a ‘youth culture’ one which was ultimately conscious of itself.With this change in society and as problems occurred newspapers took advantage to emphasise story lines which, arguably in turn would lead to ‘moral panic’ to some degree. And as Eileen Janes Yeo explains that some of these ideas were ‘manufactured’ in the light of politicians creating these problems for them themselves to solve through social reform, creating further panic over the youth of tomorrow. An example of this can be seen by the mugging of an MP in 1862 or Garrotting as they were coined, held a small proportion of crimes but a press campaign resulted from this ‘†¦Garrotte robberies was tiny, the press created sensations out of minor incidents. Parliament responded with fer ocious legislation providing for offenders to be flogged as well as imprisoned. ’[1] Later Clive Emsley explains ‘Violence, especially violence with a sexual frisson, sold newspapers. But violent crime in the form of murder and street robbery never figured significantly in the statistics or in the courts. ’[2] This therefore verifies the effects that the press had on panic within a social context to some extent.On the other hand Andrew Davies argues differently agreeing with Humphries point of view in his writings ‘I would strongly endorse Humphries' assertion that violent youth gangs were not an invention of the late Victorian press. ’[3] It should also be noted that to a degree many Victorian English thought that the Irish or more specifically the poor Irish were responsible for a large proportion of crime in some areas such as Lancashire. With the substantial increase in Irish immigration during the early Victorian period, the host society's wides pread belief in the innate criminality of the Irish-and, more particularly, of the Irish poor-formed an integral component of the negative side of the Irish stereotype’[4] The Dublin weekly newspaper added in 1868 â€Å"Nowhere in England can our countrymen consider themselves safe from English mob violence,† The press therefore had a degree of influence on the panic throughout England regardless of whether they overstated events or exaggerated them, which is not to say this was the case in these separate examples.As hand in hand they make the situation worse and can spread panic. There were on the other hand reasons for concern and panic within Britain during this time. There were considered to be many Scuttlers and such like which were not recorded during the time and as James Bent describes in his criminal life: reminiscences of forty-two years as a police officer ‘In the early 1890s, staff at the Manchester Royal Infirmary informed the police that â€Å"scar cely a day passed† Without the admission of someone who ad been injured in a scuttling affray’[5] this shows to a large degree that the presence of the police was either needed or attributed to events occurring and therefore persistent panic could be justified to some degree. In addition to this pick pocketing is considered a skill and thus meant training, which opens a new area of debate. The orphans that were taken in had to work for their lodging and this could be the case with picking pockets.This argues that most youths were pushed into crime due to poverty and unbearable backgrounds. Such was the need for the Ragged schools to bring those who did not have a chance at education for the varying reasons that hindered children in the 19th century. The Metropolitan police force is an important factor in scaling the panic of 19th century England as a centralized force that had more responsibility and imposed increasing numbers of laws is an obvious sign of control regar dless of whether it was needed or not.It could be considered to be a reactionary attribute to what was happening whether it was to take precautions or act against the facing problems of youth culture. Increases in police forces in cities can also be drawn from the panic of Gang violence and scuttling. Philip Gooderson certainly argues the case, as for example the Salsford police increasing the force by around 30 in the years 1890-1. The various factory acts of the 19th century could also play a part in delinquency as it meant that less and less children were working therefore would either be in education or on the streets.It should also be considered that children had been taken advantage within industries for a long time and the possible effect this had on youth, the 19th century finally saw a slow and gradual intervention in this through various social reforms with such acts as the chimney sweeps act of 1840, which finally began to be enforced unlike previous reforms which were of ten ignored, as well as the numerous factory acts which allowed better conditions for children and women and age restrictions.The various institutions that were created during the 19th century are an obvious sign of ‘moral panic’ and clearly show one reason why the 19th century has often be concerned with youth. Schools such as the Ragged schools in 1844, Reformatories in 1854 and finally in 1857 Industrial schools, each of which were to their own as such and have varying ideals. However there are conflicting views upon how delinquents should have been treated, and there are a number of private voluntary additions that drove for a varying unishments opposed to prison, such as, Mary Carpenter, Sydney Turner and Mathew Davenport Hill whom helped in different ways to establish delinquency and aid such effects, this also argues the case for ‘moral panic’ as there were now debates on what was best for delinquents in form of punishments and education. Additionall y the social welfare and acts of the 1850’s as well as the education act of 1876 introduced a number of industrial schools and further developments within truant schools. There was a network of 208 schools: 43 reformatories, 132 industrial schools, 21 day industrials schools and 12 truant schools’[6] Heather Shore comments that ‘ The juvenile offender was not, then, an invention of the nineteenth century. However, it is clear that in this period a reconceptualisation of youth crime, and various developments in social policy, as well as the activities of certain individuals, resulted in a new language of youthful delinquency. Juvenile delinquency reiterated throughout the nineteenth and twentieth century’s, even today there is a concern for today and tomorrow’s youth as ideals are lost through different generations, not to mention the rise in knife and dangerous weapon crimes. Gang violence and criminality are still high today in London and other maj or cities with a similar average age of criminality ‘the average age of a teenager arrested for murder in 2008 (18. 1 years) was four months older than the average age of a teenage murder arrestee in 1960 (17.   years)’[7] despite there being ‘moral panic’ for youth culture during the 19th century it’s not strictly persistent just to 19th century, as it is still of concern today. During the 18th and 19th century children worked for up to 18 hours a day, little or no education was offered as a result right and wrong was not always apparent and this is a contributing factor to delinquency and persistent panic in the 19th century, as modernity took hold of Britain and more liberal and welfare ideas were debated which stemmed concern for youth which had not been fully understood or considered in previous century’s.Bibliography Davies, Andrew youth gangs, masculinity and violence in late Victorian Manchester and Salford, Journal of Social History , Vol. 32, No. 2. (Winter, 1998), pp. 349-369 Emsley, Clive Crime and the Victorians Last updated 2011-02-17 http://www. bbc. co. uk/history/british/victorians/crime_01. shtml 02/02/12 Males, Mike A. Criminals and violent offenders getting older and older†¦ not â€Å"younger† 03/12/2010 http://www. cjcj. org/post/juvenile/justice/criminals/and/violent/offenders/getting/older/and/older/not/younger Accessed 02/03/2012Pearson, Geoffrey Disturbing continuities: ‘Peaky blinders’ to ‘Hoodies’ ( CJM no. 65 Autumn 2006) Shore, Heather The idea of juvenile crime in 19th century England, History Today, June 2000 Swift, Roger Heroes or Villains? : The Irish, Crime, and Disorder in Victorian England : http://www. jstor. org/stable/4051670 Accessed: 06/03/2012 13:45 ———————– [1] Clive Emsley http://www. bbc. co. uk/history/british/victorians/crime_01. shtml [2] http://www. bbc. co. uk/history/british/vi ctorians/crime_01. html [3] Andrew Davies youth gangs, masculinity and violence in late Victorian Manchester and Salford p. 4 [4] Roger Swift Heroes or Villains? : The Irish, Crime, and Disorder in Victorian England [5] Youth gangs, masculinity and violence in late Victorian Manchester and Salford, p. 5 [6] Heather Shore, The idea of juvenile crime in 19th century England, History Today, June 200 p. 7 [7]http://www. cjcj. org/post/juvenile/justice/criminals/and/violent/offenders/getting/older/and/older/not/younger

Social Work Narrative

Personal Narrative Statement 1)How do you account for your interest in social work? In your response, discuss paid or volunteer experiences that support your choice of social work as a profession? My interest in social work developed during college. I always had a interest in helping others in one way or another. I joined a sorority in college, Delta Sigma Theta, which is based off of community service. During the week I would volunteer to tutor children that were struggling in certain areas of school. I would talk to these children and explain to them the importance of education and try to influence them as much as possible to try their hardest in everything that they do. I would also go to nursing homes, with other member of our organization, and play bingo with their residents. We thought it was important to spend time with the elderly and/or sick as well. Just knowing how much it meant to those residents for us to come and spend time with them was a phenomenal feeling. After college I worked for the Indianapolis Juvenile Correctional Facility (Girl School) as a Youth Service Officer (YSO). I gained a lot of hands on experience at the Girl School and I was able to work in more depth with the youth. I worked with at least 35-40 troubled teenagers each day. I was their guidance counselor, teacher, disciplinary, and sometimes I felt like their parent. I enjoyed being able to talk with each individual and I learned how to communicate with each of them effectively. Through all these individual experiences I developed a strong desire to become a social worker so that I can help improve people’s lives by helping them cope and solve issues in their everyday lives. )Social work is committed to social justice. What is social justice? What experiences have shaped your interest in advancing social justice? In the future, how will you help advance social justice? Social justice is concerned with equality or equal justice, not just in the courts, but in all aspects of society. This concept demands that people have equal rights and opportunities and this includes everyone, from the poorest to the wealthiest. Social justice refers to a concept of a society that gives individuals and groups fair treatment and fair distribution of advantages, ssets, and benefits among all members of a society. On a positive note, one experience in particular that have shaped my interest in advancing social justice is the inauguration of the first African American President, President Barack Obama. This has had such a positive influence on the minority communities because it has allowed us to see how much things have changed. It has given individuals hope that may have never thought that there would be a Black President or a president outside of the ethnic background of Caucasian. In the future, I hope to be a part of a movement that advances social justice even more. I would like to be a part of something that helps our children in need, employs our workers in need, helps our disabled and heels are criminal justice system. I currently work for a job where I experience inequalities because of my job title or skin color. There are times where I feel that I am not valued as some of my other co-workers due to the difference of our job classification. There are situations that have occurred that I feel like I was misunderstood because of my skin color and some of the negative stereotypes that comes along with it. As a social worker, I would like to establish job confidence, meaning that I would like to implement a system within all jobs that allows all employees no matter of your race, class or gender that allows you maintain the confidence needed to perform your job duties without the ridicule or stereotypes from those of higher positions. 3)What is your perception or understanding of social work as a profession? Elaborate on how you understand social workers intervene with individuals, families, groups, organizations, communities, and political entities? Professional social workers are found in every facet of community life including schools, hospitals, mental health facilities, prisons, military and all other public and private agencies that serve individuals and families in need. Social workers assist individuals, groups or communities restore or enhance social functioning through creating living conditions favorable to their goal or need. Social workers are trained professionals that help people overcome some of life’s most difficult challenges such as poverty, discrimination, abuse, addiction, physical illness, educational issues, mental illness, disability, unemployment, etc. They accomplish this through counseling individuals, families and communities; teaching them how to cope with the stresses of everyday life. From a political standpoint, social workers spend time and money on campaigns that elect public officials that are committed to social work values. Sound public policies enable social workers to meet human needs, be fairly compensated and promote social justice. Overall I perceive social work as a â€Å"take action† profession. Often times, we as human beings complain and talk about what needs to be done but do not do anything beyond that. Social workers are hands on. They are not just talking about what â€Å"should† be done but they are doing something to better our communities. Social workers are about making a difference in society by helping others out that are in need for various reasons. If you are very sick and in need of assistance to perform normal, everyday functions, social workers can assist you in finding a home, affordable to you and your family so that you can have that need met. Social workers assist children that may have been a victim of abuse or witness of domestic violence by removing them from that destructive atmosphere into a much safer environment while providing counseling to aid in the healing process. They provide food, shelter and clothing for those that are down in their luck because of unemployment, disabilities or all other poverty related issues. There are a wide variety of activities that can be considered social work and professional social workers are employed in many different environments but they all possess one common goal and that is â€Å"helping people†. 4)The concept of cultural pluralism emphasizes respect for diversity of values, heritages, customs, and lifestyles. We are interested in your experiences with people from diverse populations. For each of the following diverse groups, describe how you have worked with each. If you have gaps in your exposure to diversity, what is your plan to broaden your effectiveness to work respectfully and effectively with each of these populations? a)Ethnicity (race, culture) – I have worked with many different ethnicities and cultures in several way. I have worked with different ethnic groups at work, school and everyday life. As a minority, I was raised to treat everyone how I would like to be treated so outside of their physical appearance I look at everyone as my equal. I have different ethnic backgrounds in family which does not seem to be uncommon at all in these days and times. I believe that different backgrounds and cultures is what make our world so beautiful and diverse. b)Spiritual tradition different from your own – Although I don’t understand all of the different spiritual traditions and backgrounds, I definitely have worked with different ones at one time or another. I have dated an individual with a different spiritual background than myself and I learned that although we may have worshiped in different ways; we worshiped for the same purpose. I know that this may not be true of all spiritual backgrounds but I feel that it is important to respect each person spiritual preference even if I don’t agree with their values. I currently work for a hospital and in our registration process we ask each patient if they have a certain spiritual preference that they would like us to note on their chart. We ask this question not to be judgmental but to provide that option if the patient wants to seek clergy while hospitalized. c)Age – I have worked with a variety of ages throughout the year. Currently I work with a wide variety of age groups. I work in a laboratory and there are both older and younger age groups. Our younger employees respect the older employees because we have learned a lot from their experiences. I, personally, have never been discriminated against because of my age, as far as I know, and it does not seem to be a major issue from my experiences. I have also worked over a lot of juveniles in a correctional facility setting. I found this job to be quite challenging at times because these individuals required a lot of attention and redirecting. However, the experience within itself was priceless. d)Disability – Working in a hospital setting has allowed me to encounter a lot of patients with several different disabilities. Watching these patients struggle with things that the average human being might take for granted is a mind-blowing experience within itself. Seeing and hearing these individuals talk about their disabilities has made me become more appreciative of the little things in life like walking, driving, talking, working, being able to dress and bath myself, etc. Although working with people with disabilities can be disheartening, it is also very rewarding because it makes you feel really good to be able to assist another person in need. e)Socio-Economic – I have worked with people with different socio-economic backgrounds or statuses because I have experienced different socio-economic statuses. Both of my parents came from family households containing at least 6 or more children and as a result neither one of my parents had much, economically, as a child. My parents got married and started a family at a young age so as a esult I was raised on a lower socio-economic status then some of my peers. Living in a time where new technologies are developed constantly and wealth and greed are at an all time high, I am constantly striving to achieve more. However, I know to achieve more wealth or higher socio-economic status one must lay a strong educational background foundation which is why I would like to further my education by achieving a M asters Degree. f)Sexual orientation – Sexual orientation is usually divided into 3 groups: Heterosexual, Homosexual, and Bisexual. We live in a time where all three groups are becoming more predominant, especially homosexual and bisexual groups. Regardless of my sexual preference I feel that it is important to respect individual’s decision and not to judge them by it. As a phlebotomist I have to draw all patients regardless of their sexual orientation. I do not treat homosexual’s any different than I treat heterosexual’s when taking precautions against exposures. Actually I was trained to treat all patients as if they had a communicable disease to lessen my risk of exposing myself to contaminants. I have also worked around individuals that outwardly discuss their sexual preferences and I don’t think that they should not discuss it if it is not considered the â€Å"norm†, however I feel that all sexual orientations should be able to express themselves as long as it’s considered appropriate conversation considering the environment. 5)When social workers are in a situation where they must choose between two relevant, but competing choices, and where each choice may have an undesirable consequence for the parties involved, this is called an ethical dilemma. Describe an ethical dilemma you have experienced. Discuss your decision-making process and factors which contributed to the ultimate outcome. Please protect confidentiality, and DO NOT reveal names of individuals or organizations. I worked for my previous job for more than 7 years as a phlebotomist and I gained a lot of training and insight through this experience. With the economy becoming so bad my employer was having to cut back so they had hiring and wage freezes. I was working without insurance because the hiring freeze would not allow me to change my status from PRN to full time so that I could receive benefits. Suddenly, the hospital that I was working for through my employer decided not to renew their contract with my company which had my department in fear of unemployment. The hospital decided to open up their own laboratory and hire their own staff. This had a great impact on my employer because it was a great financial loss for our company which meant more possible cut backs. I was forced to make a difficult decision because I had a lot of experience with the company I was employed for but I needed benefits and the hospital was offering full time status plus benefits. Due to the short notice my current employer was insuring us that if we left them to work for the hospital that we will not be allowed to return there for employment. Do I stay or do I go was the question I would ask myself over and over. What if things didn’t go well with this new laboratory? How long will the hiring and wage freeze last? After a few months of deliberating I finally chose to work for the hospital. I thought this would be a great opportunity for me and I would be able to receive the benefits that I desperately needed for myself and my child. As of now, I have not regretted this decision. Our laboratory is a success and I am currently receiving the health benefits that I was seeking. I make a lot more money than I did with my previous employer and I also receive bonuses, vacation time and holiday pay. This ethical dilemma turned out in my favor after all and I have no desire to return to my previous employer. 6)Social work is a profession that has considerable emotional demands on the practitioner. How do you handle stress and what coping skills do you anticipate using as a competent practitioner? I handle stress the best by remaining calm and focused so that I can think clearly and make good decisions. I like to reflect on what I think is causing the stress and figure out the best way possible to minimize that stressor. As a competent practitioner in the social work profession I plan to have stressful situations therefore I’m not surprised or caught off guard when they occur. I will remain calm and level-headed as much as possible so that I can provide what is necessary. Through my experience I have noticed that people react better to individuals that are calm, confident and in control. People feel a lot safer when they are in the hands of a profession that is in control of the situation and that knows how to remain strong but sensitive to whatever the circumstances may be. 7)Graduate school provides learning opportunities that require an investment of time and energy. Plan to spend an average of 36 hours per week on homework for a full-time load of four courses. In addition, three semesters of field practica require approximately 20-24 hours per week. Discuss why you are prepared to attend graduate school at this time in your life/career. Please describe plans that you are making to adjust your personal and professional life in order to successfully participate in: a)The coursework, class preparation and assignments. Academic pursuits require approximately 9 hours a week per class. b)Two separate field practica of approximately 20-24 hours per week for 3 semesters. These practica must be completed at practicum agencies during daytime hours; rarely do practicum sites offer night/evening/weekend hours. It has been 6 years since I graduated from college after completing my bachelors and I have now decided that I am ready to go back to college to receive a masters degree. Since relocating back to my hometown I have had trouble finding a job in my major, Criminal Justice, and would like to expand my knowledge by returning for a Masters Degree in Social Work (MSW). As a single mother of two children I plan on making a lot of adjustments in order to make this work out for me. I am currently working full-time, 40 hours or more a week, on dayshift so I don’t have to adjust my hours for this program but more or less the amount of hours so that I can focus and have time to complete my assignments. )My children are enrolled in school and daycare so I plan to do a lot of the homework during their school/daycare hours to prevent distractions. I also anticipate a lot of late hours of studying beginning after I lay my children down to sleep at night. My biggest goal is to prevent and form of procrastination from hibernating within myself. I want to stay on top things so that I am not cramming and falling behind in my classes. Organization is also an import ant goal during this endeavor. Remaining organized will prevent me from missing assignments, due dates and all other important factors that may apply. b)The most difficult challenge I am facing during this program will be the field practica of approximately 20-24 hours per week for 3 semesters. I am concerned that financial constraints may develop during this period of unpaid work. Therefore to prepare for this challenge I am currently saving as much money as possible while working full-time now. I want to be able to be focused on my practica and not financially stressed while trying to concentrate on my studies. I also plan on applying for financial aid so that I can receive assistance to help pay for my living expenses or room and board. I was in a similar situation when I did my internship for my bachelors program except for that required 40 hours a week of unpaid time. I successfully completed that task through the methods mentioned previously so I’m confident that everything will work out with this program. When I was a child my parents would always use this quote: â€Å"Where there is a will there is a way† and since I am very much willing I know that my faith will guide me the entire way.

Function of Public Relation

Functions of Public Relation It has been reported that Public Relations or PR is the art of managing communication between an organization and its key publics to build, manage and sustain a positive image (â€Å"†, 2006), and is an important function in the desire of any business organization or company to establish its reputation and brand image to its target market. For this reason, it is essential to determine the several functions of public relations, categorized as organizational and societal. This paper seeks to discuss the organizational and societal functions of public relation. In addition, it also seeks to explain the differences and similarities that exist between the two functions. Organizational Functions of Public Relations Organizational functions of public relations are activities that interact with or affect organizations, and these include functions, such as communications management, media, government affairs, publicity, investor relations, community relations, consumer relations, and employee relations (â€Å"†, 2006). These functions involve processes or actions that unite the different teams or functions within the business organization or company. The company can use them these functions to distribute or dissipate useful information to the employees of the company, to stakeholders and to other organizations involved in the company. The organizational functions can be used for fostering an effective and efficient workforce, to increase the productivity of the company, and to establish its reputation in the market. One of its important functions is employee relations or human resource management. Human Resource Management is concerned with all the activities that contribute to successfully attracting, developing, motivating, planning systematic approaches, and maintaining a high-performing workforce that result in organizational success (, 2002). In addition, it gives an increasing emphasis on the personal needs of the organization and its members, where the challenge is to create an organizational environment in which each employee can grow and develop to his or her fullest extent, and it aims at developing strategies for the total organization focused on clarifying an organization’s current and potential problems and developing solutions for them (, 2002). Another important function is managing customer relations or customer service. This strategy is used by business organizations or companies to learn more about the needs and behaviors of customers to develop stronger relationships with them. Managing customer relations is essential for companies for they need to value its customers based on the total value of their relationship with the company, the potential value of their relationship, the profitability of their relationship, the insights they can provide the company, and the influence that they exercise over other customers (, 2000). With proper management of customer relations, the company and its customers will be able to create a good relationship and benefit from one another. Both the employee and customer relations are functions of the organizational function of public relations because both functions are processes that involve distributing useful information. Employee relations are responsible in dissipating useful information within the company, while customer relations is responsible for giving out information regarding the company and the company’s products and services. In addition, both functions are essential in the company’s aim to sustain and maintain their operation, and with these processes, the whole organization will be able to continue to produce products or render services, both internally and externally. Societal Functions of Public Relations In contrast to the organizational function of public relations, societal functions of public relations have to do with actions that connect to the public, and these functions include marketing communications, consumer relations, public affairs, and issues management plus social responsibility (â€Å"†, 2006). These are mainly external functions, for these involve the processes that would enable the company or the business organization to relate to the public properly. Without the external or societal functions of public relations, companies will not be able to have the chance to communicate with their consumers or clients. Effective communication includes giving out information regarding the company’s products or rendered services and receiving feedbacks from the consumers. One of the important functions of public relations’ societal functions is marketing communications. It has been reported that marketing communication consists of the messages and related media used to communicate with a market (â€Å"†, 2006), and this includes disciplines such as advertising, sales promotion, marketing public relations, personal selling, direct marketing, sponsorship, and Internet communications (â€Å"†, 2006). The use of marketing communications is important because through its use, companies or business organizations will be able to effectively and efficiently distribute information to their customers, and with the use of the various promotional disciplines mentioned, companies will be able to generate ideas, use their creativity and encourage effective communication and relationship with their customers. Another important function of the societal functions of public relations is social responsibility, for this element encompasses its entire function. At present, companies relate effectively with their consumers using many forms of media. With this, they have the social responsibility of distributing and informing their customers of useful and relevant information regarding their products and services. Moreover, companies have the social responsibility of setting a good example to other companies, through being true to their words and to their actions, by using available forms and means of media and communication. With the use of effective public relations and dissipation of proper information, companies will be able to communicate effectively with their consumers, in line with their desire to establish their reputation in the market and in the industry. Both marketing communications and social responsibility are functions of public relations’ societal functions because both elements are external means of distributing information and data to the consumers of the company. Both are also responsible with the main aim of public relations, which is to build and manage information and the reputation of the company to the public. Differences and Similarities Both the organizational and societal functions of public relations are involved in conveying messages and encouraging communication of a business organization, internally and externally. Both functions serve as good means of developing communications and gathering data, and both use different forms of media for better creativity and convenience. The scope of organizational functions of public relations involves actions concerning the company, while societal functions are interested in activities regarding the society (â€Å"†, 2006). The organizational functions of public relations are involved in internal development of communication, while societal functions are involved in dissipating useful information towards consumers. From the functions discussed above, it can be deduced that it is crucial for any business organization or company to use both the organizational and societal functions of public relations. With its use, companies will be able to encourage effective communication and distribute information to their employees and to their consumers. Using these functions, companies will be able to efficiently establish its reputation to the market and to the industry, and also establish its brand image and brand identity to its consumers. Professionally speaking, public relations means the activities that management undertakes to evaluate and measure the attitudes, opinions, and sentiments of the public toward your organization. A public relations plan will be an integral part of who determines policies, processes, and procedures with regard to public interest that your organization will follow and implement. In conventional marketing public relations is employed to influence customers and their buying habits. Public relations is also part of a comprehensive marketing communications amalgam which also includes advertising, sales promotion, and direct sales. The effective use and practice of public relations theory which results in the organization being viewed in the general publics’ eyes as a responsible and ethical company that is concerned about the welfare of its customers will soon manifest itself in the organization’s bottom line. What Are The Functions of Public Relations? Community Relations. Any organization must be seen as a good community citizen and should have the goodwill of the community in which it operates. An effective community relations program will need to be continuing and comprehensive. Organizations can implement various programs to improve community relations on a regular or even ongoing basis. So, clearly, one of the major functions of public relations is to bridge the business/community gap. When organizations support activities and programs that improve quality of life in their communities their image and reputation will be enhanced. Employee Relations. Maybe the most important resource that a company has are its employees and the customer service they provide. The functions of public relations in regards to the company’s employees is the maintenance of employee goodwill. The image and reputation of a company among its employees is also another responsibility of public relations in its function of employee relations. Product Public Relations. When new products are introduced to the market the role that public relations plays is crucial for creating awareness and differentiating the product in the public’s eyes from other similar products. When existing products need a push public relations is often called on the improve product visibility. Sometimes there are changes instituted in existing products and public relations has to focus the attention of consumers on the product. If a product needs to be positioned in the market a properly executed public relations campaign, much like an effective viral marketing campaign, it can overcome buyer inertia and remove negative perceptions on the part of the public. Financial Relations. This function involves communication with the wide variety of individuals and groups that the company deals with in the course of its operations. This includes the stockholders and investors but is not limited to them. Financial analysts and potential investors have to be informed about the company’s finances. A well planned and executed financial relations campaign can increase the value of the company’s stock because of improved image and reputation. This improved image can also make it easier to gather additional capital. And if you are seeking free money for your small business, your pr will put you in a better position to be seen in a good light, by the people that write the checks. Political and Government Relations. The wide range of activities that public relations has to cover in the political arena includes influencing legislation that can be hindrances to the proper operation of the company. Public relations in politics may have to stage debates and seminars for government officials. So one of the functions of public relations can actually be to not only change the way your community works, but your state, and even your nation. Crisis Communications. When anything untoward happens like an accident in a production plant it is the job of public relations to provide honest and accurate information so that the uncertainty by the people involved directly or indirectly can be assuaged. Natural disasters, management wrongdoings, bankruptcies and product failures are crises which public relations must play a large part. We all want justice, and the truth to come out. That is why it is nice to know that one of the functions of public relations – crisi communication – makes this happen. 1. ) OBJECTIVES OF PUBLIC RELATION 1)To promote mutual understanding. 2)To persuade individuals, groups etc. 3)Help in fund raising. 4)Change the behavior and attitude of the public. 5) Influence people. 6)To win friends. 7) Avoid risk involved in misunderstanding. 8) Prepare and supply the public with information about the organization like price, quality, export, employment and other special features. 10) Provide infor mation about the activities of the company, to the press and writers. 11) Liaise, counsel and advise. 12) Improve internal staff relations. 3) Help the public to love life and work for better or for worse without conditions. 14) Undertake a public relation education programme. 15) Forestall attack by the competitors or opponents. 16) Create and maintain image and reputation of the company. 17) Promote goodwill. 18) Correct misconceptions and clarify on criticisms of its policies and practices. 19) Establish relations with the federal and state legislators, agencies. 20) Undertake a campaign of public education about an industry or profession and its contribution to the public. 1) Communicate with the employees on their benefits, accident prevention, labor relations and collective bargaining. 22) Establish press relations, publicity articles preparation, press release, photographs. 23) Undertake programmes like sales training courses for retailers, whole sellers. 23) Undertake progra mmes like sales training courses for retailers, wholesalers. 24) Sponsor dealer and distributor relations schemes. 25) Ascertain public opinion, conduct opinion research and understand public attitudes on the organization, profession and practice.

Formal Research-based Proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

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Soviet Unions Involvement in Israels 1967 six day war and the gains Research Paper

Soviet Unions Involvement in Israels 1967 six day war and the gains - Research Paper Example Soviet Union played a major role in causing the 1967 six day war between Israel and Arab countries. Soviet Union was one among the strongest supporters of Israel earlier at the time of Israel’s formation. However, Soviet Union released later that because of the cultural similarities, Israel was getting more polarized towards United States. Israel’s increasing relationships with America, forced Soviet Union to look for other options in the Middle East. On the other hand, Arab countries were looking for an opportunity to establish stronger relationships with Soviet Union in order to counter the combined threats of America and Israel. Thus, Soviet Union established stronger relations with many of the Arab countries including Egypt in the 1960’s. Soviet Union was the major arm supplier for the Arab countries during this period. â€Å"The Soviet Union’s growing influence in the Middle East worried Israel as did Egypt’s ever growing hauls of Soviet weapo ns†1 Soviet Union had other intentions in strengthening the tension between Arab countries and Israel. In fact they were trying to catch fish from the muddy water.They calculated that the Arab countries had less powerful intelligences and it is easy to mislead these countries to with false information. In other words, Soviet Union supplied false intelligence to Arab countries in the 1960’s in order to strengthen their interests in Middle East region. One such false intelligence information supplied to Egypt by Soviet Union resulted in the six day war in 1967 between Israel and Arab countries... Soviet Union and Six Day war In 1960’s, â€Å"Soviets took on the role of armorer for both Syria and Egypt, supplying them with modern tanks, aircraft and later missiles†3. Israel had certain concerns about the increasing weapon accumulation by the Arab countries. They rightly calculated that these weapons may one day use against them if a war breaks out. Soviet Union did everything possible to increase the concerns of both Israel and the Arab countries. On one side, Soviet Union gave a strong message to Israel that they are ready to attack Israel’s critical places and on the other side, Soviet cultivated a feeling of insecurity among the Arab nations because of the fabricated threats from Israel. Western diplomats also played their own role in causing the six day war. A British foreign ministry official told an Israeli diplomat during this period that â€Å"the Soviet Unions would give it backing to Egypt if and when the latter decided to launch a preemptive wa r†4. In short, both Soviet Union and the Western countries played their parts in causing the six day war. However, Soviet Union seems to be more interested than the westerners in conducting this war because of their strategic interests in the Middle Eastern region. â€Å"Soviet Union’s objectives in the Middle Eastern region were included the control of Suyez Canal and cutting the oil supplies to the European powers†5. Soviet Union expected two birds for one shot by conducting the six day war. They thought that with the help of a war between Israel and Arab countries, they could have destabilized Israel from one end and cut the transport of oil supplies to European countries. During this period, all the commercial

Business english and communication Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business english and communication - Assignment Example They also manufacture televisions, storage devices, mobile phones, office equipment--like computers, notebook PCS, monitors, printers, and LCD displays--photography equipment, surveillance equipment, and household appliances. Much of this is usually produced in Korea, and it is shipped to other countries to be sold. Communication is done between staff in the department via memos, messages, meetings, conferences, and phone calls. The HR department communicates primarily through email and phone correspondence, as well as in person. The general manager communicates with them via the same means. The marketing department communicates through the use of memos, emails, phone correspondence, and personal meetings with other staff to determine their next steps to take as far as getting products out to the public. The marketing department also uses press releases to give news to the public about new product releases. Once the marketing department and other company staff meet to determine what their next product lines will be, the production staff is then notified, and they work on producing what will appeal to the public. Samsung corresponds with other companies located in different countries, such as between Korea and the US, to distribute their products as affiliates. The affiliates keep in communication with the main company through email and phone. The function and communication structures of Samsung are very solid, cut, and dry. Staff within the headquarters can communicate with one another quickly and efficiently, as they can meet within offices and hold conferences should the need arise. Disputes within the company can be resolved quickly, and sudden changes can be communicated without much delay. The only weakness that can be seen is that their manufacturers are in Korea, which can present some issues with language barriers. Other than that, Samsung seems to be very well run. Then, there is Microsoft. Microsoft is a

Marketing mix Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Marketing mix - Essay Example All these suggest that the concept of marketing mix has evolved over time as the 4Ps were initially based on the production and supply context of the 1950s (Kent and Brown 2006). The model now encompasses aspects of sociology and cognitive psychology (Hakansson and Waluszewski 2005 cited in Kent and Brown 2006). Without marketing mix capability other concepts such as customer orientation, competitor orientation and inter-functional coordination would not be able to contribute to better firm performance, suggests Shin (2012) thereby highlighting the significance of MM concept in the field of marketing. However, scholars do not agree on the ingredients of the marketing mix. Some authors such as Borden (1964), Frey (1956), and Staudt and Taylor (1965) consider the elements as procedures, policies and processes, while others look at these elements as tools, parameters or instruments (cited by Waterschoot and Bulte 1992). This concept has been criticized as it lacks any specific explanati on of characteristics, thereby suggesting that the concept has a major flaw. The elements of marketing mix do not lead to any theory development. Gronroos (1989) postulates that the marketing mix artificially limits the scope of marketing management as the concept suggests that marketing decisions can be taken based on the 4 Ps (cited by Bitner 1991). Since many authors are critical of this concept, the marketing mix will be evaluated based on the typology of critique in marketing designed by Hackley (2009). This typology has four overlapping categories – functional, intellectual, ethical and political critique. Functional critique The functional critique would simply question whether the marketing mix concept works. Even though it is considered an important tool, there is no consensus over the eligibility and agreement of the practical application of the 4Ps of the MM variables (Kent and Brown 2006). The MM concept suggests that the buyers are a homogeneous group of people w ith common buying behaviour (Bennett, 1997). Resources and capabilities of the organization are organized in a way to satisfy customer needs but Bennett debates whether the customer accepts product benefits and attributes in the same way as the company claims. The customers are not concerned with the elements of the marketing mix and only seek satisfaction from the products and services. The purpose of MM is to improve sustainability performance across economic, ecological and societal indicators (Pomering, Noble and Johnson 2011). Consumers expect firms to be more socially and environmentally responsible and report that they would prefer to purchase from such organizations. However, there is an attitude-behaviour gap in actual consumer purchase, thereby implying that firms that tend to focus on the MM variables do not achieve the intended objectives. Sustainability through MM elements may appear discordant and hollow unless sustainability is addressed at the vision and mission leve l or at the corporate strategy level. The MM concept focuses on the tactical and managerial aspects of marketing and does not take into account the social, organizational, competitive and economic issues (Bitner 1991). The MM has been criticized for its short-term focus on sales and transactions while undermining the long-term relational thinking and brand equity (Rafiq and Ahmed, 1995 cited in Gordon, 2012). The concept has also been criticized f

Software Engineering Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Software Engineering - Essay Example In this regard, as the year changed from 1999 to 2000, the day became 01-01-00, and the machine considered it as January 1, 1900. Hence Y2K millennium bug proved itself just like a clicking time bomb that affected all the major computer applications (YourDictionary; Halpern). Dates are much Critical A lot of transactions related to various economy circumstances match their dates with database account having a future date or today's date. Thus, if the machine fails to grip the dates in the approved manner, bills do not get compensated, notices do not deliver and also results in date driven computations toward failure. Moreover, after 2000, all the systems those were not familiar with the change in millennium caused mistaken output with those applications that dealt directly or indirectly with future dates (YourDictionary; Halpern). Precautions In this regard, if the problems like Y2K or millennium bug are not remedied in a well mannered way, this could result in disruptions that may c ause delays in air flights and also towards the interruptions of landline services to trade bankruptcies to power fluctuations, and it might also cause in civil disturbances and global decline (YourDictionary; Halpern). ... However, in simple words we can say that a software process model is a simple description of those software related processes which are useful in presentation from diverse perspective. In this scenario, a considerable fraction of the active software manufacturing is obliged to construct software that follows documentation either partially or fully. In addition, it is proposed to guarantee this factor though which delivered software product meets the requirements that are defined properly in documentation (Nutt; Sommerville; Pressman; Acuna and Ferre). Software process models are very useful for giving an inspiration about the development of a product, tool or application that meets the challenges of global economy as much as possible. In addition, by adopting software modeling techniques software developers could be able to characterize new horizons in which they must keep strong view on changing trends of market that could affect our software product a lot. Moreover, a software proc ess model could be helpful for define a process for implementing and designing a software invention/product that complies with the documentation necessities or requirements. Thus, there is a link between business and software process development that’s why they both affect each other. In this regard we can relate business process modeling expertise to the domain of software engineering, which results in exploring weaknesses along with strengths of our developing models of cluster collaboration. On the other hand, if we analyze the basics of software process models no doubt it provides us with an unconventional technique to analyze, design, and track the software production processes. Additionally, it also creates easiness for us to attempt to demonstrate how the replica or model can

Administrator and Teacher Interview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Administrator and Teacher Interview - Essay Example After enrolling at Hardin-Simmons University, I realized what my calling was. A professor noticed that I had many hours in Spanish and asked me if I had ever considered teaching Spanish or bilingual education. I had always loved working with children, as I had worked with children in my high school years, helping them to read and practice math. And so, my career in education began. After some time in school, I began to realize all the benefits of being an educator: summers and holidays off, time with my family, working with children, and a love for a career unlike any other. (2) Would you recommend the education profession to others? Why or why not? I would only recommend the education profession to others that truly want to teach. The rewards from the students’ successes are wonderful. Most parents are kind and helpful. There are many more positive aspects to teaching, but there are also negative aspects to teaching. For example, teachers are some of the lowest paid professio nals in the country. Teachers must continue to educate themselves to stay current in educational trends, often at their own expense. There is immense pressure to make students perform on state accountability tests because student scores are tied to state funds for the schools. (3) Are there any other teachers in your family? If so, who? I have two cousins who are educators in Texas. (4) What is your highest level of education? (Masters) Leadership of Learning, M.Ed. (5) How long have you been an educator? I have been an educator for thirteen years. (6) What is your greatest challenge as an educator? My greatest challenge is getting parents involved in their children’s education. (7) How do you balance the demands of your profession with the political realities of the education system? It is difficult. I often take the political realities personally. I try to do my job and leave the other â€Å"stuff† at school. Sometimes I vent to those I trust, and sometimes administr ators hear my voice if I feel passionately enough about the topic. I try not to rock the boat too often because I feel like everyone is constantly critiquing my actions and me. (8) Do you live in the community that you work in? If yes, do you believe that it is important for educators to live in the community in which they work? Why or why not? I live in a nearby town. I believe that it is important for the educator to be involved in the community. An educator does not have to live in the community to be involved. I loved living in the community where I taught because the students could come over at any time. On the other hand, living outside the community offers more privacy. (9) Who was your greatest educational influence? My high school science teacher helped me love learning. He taught me to become a life-long learner. Later, he hired me in my first teaching position. During my time working with him, Mr. Hardy taught me what a true leader is: one who serves others. (10) What is the greatest benefit of being an educator? The greatest benefit is watching young people learn and love learning. When a child realizes that he/she can do anything with effort, it is amazing to watch them try new things and succeed. It is more amazing to watch them fail and try again in a different way. That shows that they are growing as students. When they accomplish what they thought was impossible, their smiles and hugs are the greatest pay. b) Administrator and Teacher Interview i) Make arrangements to interview both an administrator and a teacher. Utilize the questions below in the interview and record their responses: (1) Why did you choose to go into education as a career? I chose to go into edu

Theories of Justice Essay Example for Free

Theories of Justice Essay Theory of Justice is a work of political philosophy and ethics by John Rawls. It was originally published in 1971 and revised in both 1975 (for the translated editions) and 1999. In A Theory of Justice, Rawls attempts to solve the problem of distributive justice (the socially just distribution of goods in a society) by utilising a variant of the familiar device of the social contract. The resultant theory is known as Justice as Fairness, from which Rawls derives his two principles of justice: the liberty principle and the difference principle. Objective In A Theory of Justice, Rawls argues for a principled reconciliation of liberty and equality. Central to this effort is an account of the circumstances of justice, inspired by David Hume, and a fair choice situation for parties facing such circumstances, similar to some of Immanuel Kants views. Principles of justice are sought to guide the conduct of the parties. These parties are recognized to face moderate scarcity, and they are neither naturally altruistic nor purely egoistic. They have ends which they seek to advance, but prefer to advance them through cooperation with others on mutually acceptable terms. Rawls offers a model of a fair choice situation (the original position with its veil of ignorance) within which parties would hypothetically choose mutually acceptable principles of justice. Under such constraints, Rawls believes that parties would find his favoured principles of justice to be especially attractive, winning out over varied alternatives, including utilitarian and right-libertarian accounts. A society, according to Utilitarianism, is just to the extent that its laws and institutions are such as to promote the greatest overall or average happiness of its members. How do we determine the aggregate, or overall, happiness of the members of a society? This would seem to present a real problem. For happiness is not, like temperature or weight, directly measurable by any means that we have available. So utilitarians must approach the matter indirectly. They will have to rely on indirect measures, in other words. What would these be, and how can they be identified? The raditional idea at this point is to rely upon (a) a theory of the human good (i. e. , of what is good for human beings, of what is required for them to flourish) and (b) an account of the social conditions and forms of organization essential to the realization of that good. People, of course, do not agree on what kind of life would be the most desirable. Intellectuals, artists, ministers, politicians, corporate bu reaucrats, financiers, soldiers, athletes, salespersons, workers: all these different types of people, and more besides, will certainly not agree completely on what is a happy, satisfying, or desirable life. Very likely they will disagree on some quite important points. All is not lost, however. For there may yet be substantial agreementenough, anyway, for the purposes of a theory of justice about the general conditions requisite to human flourishing in all these otherwise disparate kinds of life. First of all there are at minimum certain basic needs that must be satisfied in any desirable kind of life. Basic needs, says James Sterba, are those needs that must be satisfied in order not to seriously endanger a persons mental or physical well-being. Basic needs, if not satisfied, lead to lacks and deficiencies with respect to a standard of mental and physical well-being. A persons needs for food, shelter, medical care, protection, companionship, and self-development are, at least in part, needs of this sort. [Sterba, Contemporary Social and Political Philosophy (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co. , 1995). A basic-needs minimum, then, is the minimum wherewithal required for a person to m eet his or her basic needs. Such needs are universal. People will be alike in having such needs, however much they diverge in regard to the other needs, desires, or ends that they may have. We may develop this common ground further by resorting to some of Aristotles ideas on this question of the nature of a happy and satisfying life. Aristotle holds that humans are rational beings and that a human life is essentially rational activity, by which he means that human beings live their lives by making choices on the basis of reasons and then acting on those choices. All reasoning about what to do proceeds from premises relating to the agents beliefs and desires. Desire is the motive for action and the practical syllogism (Aristotles label for the reasoning by which people decide what to do) is its translation into choice. Your choices are dictated by your beliefs and desiresprovided you are rational. Such choices, the reasoning that leads to them, and the actions that result from them are what Aristotle chiefly means by the sort of rational activity that makes up a human life. We may fairly sum up this point of view by saying that people are rational end-choosers. If Aristotle is at all on the right track, then it is clear that a basic-needs minimum is a prerequisite to any desirable kind of life, and further that to live a desirable kind of life a person must be free to determine his or her own ends and have the wherewithalthe means, the opportunitiesto have a realistic chance of achieving those ends. (Some of these Aristotelian points are perhaps implicitly included in Sterbas list of basic needs, under the head of self-development. ) So w hat does all this do for Utilitarianism? Quite a lot. We have filled in some of item (a) above: the theory of the human good, the general conditions essential to a happy or desirable life. The Utilitarian may plausibly claim to be trying to promote the overall happiness of people in his society, therefore, when he tries to improve such things as rate of employment, per capita income, distribution of wealth and opportunity, the amount of leisure, general availability and level of education, poverty rates, social mobility, and the like. The justification for thinking these things relevant should be pretty plain. They are measures of the amount and the distribution of the means and opportunities by which people can realize their various conception of a desirable life. With these things clearly in mind the Utilitarian is in a position to argue about item (b), the sorts of social arrangements that will deliver the means and opportunities for people to achieve their conception of a desirable life. John Stuart Mill, one of the three most important 19th century Utilitarians (the other two were Jeremy Bentham and Henry Sidgwick), argued that freedom or liberty, both political and economic, were indispensable requisites for happiness. Basing his view upon much the same interpretation of human beings and human life as Aristotle, Mill argued that democracy and the basic political libertiesfreedom of speech (and the press), of assembly, of worshipwere essential to the happiness of rational end-choosers; for without them they would be prevented from effectively pursuing their own conception of a good and satisfying life. Similarly he argued that some degree of economic prosperitywealthwas indispensable to having a realistic chance of living such a life, of realizing ones ends. So, ccording to Utilitarianism, the just society should be so organized in its institutionsits government, its laws, and its economythat as many people as possible shall have the means and opportunity to achieve their chosen conception of a desirable life. To reform the institutions of ones society toward this goal, in the utilitarian view, is to pursue greater justice. In the 19th century utilitarians often argued for a laissez faire capitalist economy. More recently some of them have argued for a mixed economy, i. e. , a state regulated market system. Mill, interestingly, argued at the beginning of the 19th century for an unregulated capitalist economy, but at the end argued for a socialist economy (which is not the same thing as a mixed economy). (3) The protection of the sorts of liberties that were guaranteed in the United States  Ã‚   by the Bill of Rights in our Constitution. (4) Democratic forms of government generally. The utilitarian rationale for each of these institutional arrangements should be fairly obvious, but it would probably contribute significantly to our understanding of utilitarianism to review, in more detail, some utilitarian arguments for (2) free market capitalism. This we shall do later, in the next section. Three Theories of Justice: Utilitarianism, Justice as Fairness, and Libertarianism (1) Utilitarianism A society, according to Utilitarianism, is just to the extent that its laws and institutions are such as to promote the greatest overall or average happiness of its members. How do we determine the aggregate, or overall, happiness of the members of a society? This would seem to present a real problem. For happiness is not, like temperature or weight, directly measurable by any means that we have available. So utilitarians must approach the matter indirectly. They will have to rely on indirect measures, in other words. What would these be, and how can they be identified? The traditional idea at this point is to rely upon (a) a theory of the human good (i. e. of what is good for human beings, of what is required for them to flourish) and (b) an account of the social conditions and forms of organization essential to the realization of that good. People, of course, do not agree on what kind of life would be the most desirable. Intellectuals, artists, ministers, politicians, corporate bureaucrats, financiers, soldiers, athletes, salespersons, workers: all these different types of people, and more besides, will certainly not agree completely on what is a happy , satisfying, or desirable life. Very likely they will disagree on some quite important points. All is not lost, however. For there may yet be substantial agreementenough, anyway, for the purposes of a theory of justice about the general conditions requisite to human flourishing in all these otherwise disparate kinds of life. First of all there are at minimum certain basic needs that must be satisfied in any desirable kind of life. Basic needs, says James Sterba, are those needs that must be satisfied in order not to seriously endanger a persons mental or physical well-being. Basic needs, if not satisfied, lead to lacks and deficiencies with respect to a standard of mental and physical well-being. A persons needs for food, shelter, medical care, protection, companionship, and self-development are, at least in part, needs of this sort. [Sterba, Contemporary Social and Political Philosophy (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co. , 1995). A basic-needs minimum, then, is the minimum wherewithal required for a person to m eet his or her basic needs. Such needs are universal. People will be alike in having such needs, however much they diverge in regard to the other needs, desires, or ends that they may have. We may develop this common ground further by resorting to some of Aristotles ideas on this question of the nature of a happy and satisfying life. Aristotle holds that humans are rational beings and that a human life is essentially rational activity, by which he means that human beings live their lives by making choices on the basis of reasons and then acting on those choices. All reasoning about what to do proceeds from premises relating to the agents beliefs and desires. Desire is the motive for action and the practical syllogism (Aristotles label for the reasoning by which people decide what to do) is its translation into choice. Your choices are dictated by your beliefs and desiresprovided you are rational. Such choices, the reasoning that leads to them, and the actions that result from them are what Aristotle chiefly means by the sort of rational activity that makes up a human life. We may fairly sum up this point of view by saying that people are rational end-choosers. If Aristotle is at all on the right track, then it is clear that a basic-needs minimum is a prerequisite to any desirable kind of life, and further that to live a desirable kind of life a person must be free to determine his or her own ends and have the wherewithalthe means, the opportunitiesto have a realistic chance of achieving those ends. (Some of these Aristotelian points are perhaps implicitly included in Sterbas list of basic needs, under the head of self-development. ) So w hat does all this do for Utilitarianism? Quite a lot. We have filled in some of item (a) above: the theory of the human good, the general conditions essential to a happy or desirable life. The Utilitarian may plausibly claim to be trying to promote the overall happiness of people in his society, therefore, when he tries to improve such things as rate of employment, per capita income, distribution of wealth and opportunity, the amount of leisure, general availability and level of education, poverty rates, social mobility, and the like. The justification for thinking these things relevant should be pretty plain. They are measures of the amount and the distribution of the means and opportunities by which people can realize their various conception of a desirable life. With these things clearly in mind the Utilitarian is in a position to argue about item (b), the sorts of social arrangements that will deliver the means and opportunities for people to achieve their conception of a desirable life. John Stuart Mill, one of the three most important 19th century Utilitarians (the other two were Jeremy Bentham and Henry Sidgwick), argued that freedom or liberty, both political and economic, were indispensable requisites for happiness. Basing his view upon much the same interpretation of human beings and human life as Aristotle, Mill argued that democracy and the basic political libertiesfreedom of speech (and the press), of assembly, of worshipwere essential to the happiness of rational end-choosers; for without them they would be prevented from effectively pursuing their own conception of a good and satisfying life. Similarly he argued that some degree of economic prosperitywealthwas indispensable to having a realistic chance of living such a life, of realizing ones ends. So, ccording to Utilitarianism, the just society should be so organized in its institutionsits government, its laws, and its economythat as many people as possible shall have the means and opportunity to achieve their chosen conception of a desirable life. To reform the institutions of ones society toward this goal, in the utilitarian view, is to pursue greater justice. In the 19th century utilitarians often argued for a laissez faire capitalist economy. More recently some of them have argued for a mixed economy, i. e. , a state regulated market system. Mill, interestingly, argued at the beginning of the 19th century for an unregulated capitalist economy, but at the end argued for a socialist economy (which is not the same thing as a mixed economy). (3) The protection of the sorts of liberties that were guaranteed in the United States  Ã‚   by the Bill of Rights in our Constitution. (4) Democratic forms of government generally. The utilitarian rationale for each of these institutional arrangements should be fairly obvious, but it would probably contribute significantly to our understanding of utilitarianism to review, in more detail, some utilitarian arguments for (2) free market capitalism. This we shall do later, in the next section. What do you think a Utilitarian would say about universal medical care? Would he or she be for it or against it? What about affirmative action programs, anti-hate crime legislation, welfare, a graduated income tax, anti-trust laws? For or against? What would decide the issue for a utilitarian? (2) Utilitarianism and Competitive Capitalism The key claim about market capitalism for the utilitarian is that free, unregulated markets efficiently allocate resourceschiefly labor and capitalin the production of goods. By a market is meant only any pattern of economic activity in which buyers do business with sellers. In the classical system of economics competition is presupposed among producers or sellers. Toward the end of the nineteenth century writers began to make explicit hat competition required that there be a considerable number of sellers in any trade or industry in informed communication with each other. In more recent times this has been crystallized into the notion of many sellers doing business with many buyers. Each is well informed as to the prices at which others are selling and buyingthere is a going price of which everyone is aware. Most important of all, no buyer or seller is large enough to control or exercise an appreciable influence on the common price. The notion of efficiency as applied to an economic system is many-sided. It can be viewed merely as a matter of getting the most for the least. There is also the problem of getting the particular things that are wanted by the community in the particular amounts in which they are wanted. In addition, if an economy is to be efficient some reasonably full use must be made of the available, or at least the willing, labor supply. There must be some satisfactory allocation of resources between present and future productionbetween what is produced for consumption and what is invested in new plant and processes to enlarge future consumption. There must also be appropriate incentive to change; the adoption of new and more efficient methods of production must be encouraged. Finallya somewhat different requirement and one that went long unrecognizedthere must be adequate provision for the research and technological development which brings new methods and new products into existence. All this makes a large bill of requirements. Rawlss Theory of Justice as Fairness The reformulation of Utilitarianism we just saw comes from John Rawls, who did not present it as a version of Utilitarianism at all. He presented it as a first approximation to a quite distinct conception of justice from Utilitarianism, a conception that he calls Justice as Fairness. I presented Rawlss idea as a reformulation of Utilitarianism, anyway, because it seems to me to be greatly clarifying of whats wrong with Utilitarianism to have an alternative to compare it to, an alternative that blocks the kinds of fairness objections that are typically raised against Utilitarianism. In Utilitarianism everyone, in a way, is given equal consideration at the outset inasmuch as everyones happiness is taken into consideration and is given the same weight in the reasoning by which a form of social organization is settled on as the one that, in the circumstances, yields the greatest average utility. But, as we saw, Utilitarianism may in some circumstances settle on a form of social organization that treats some people unfairly, by imposing undue burdens on them for the sake of the greater average utility or happiness of the whole social group. In the light of this fact it is reasonable to conclude that something is wrong with the Utilitarian procedure for weighing the interests of the individual members of the social group in deciding on what forms of social organization best serve those interests. The procedure puts individuals at and undesirable and unfair risk of being sacrificed for the overall social good. In the principle that we suggested as a revision of Utilitarianism, people would not be put at quite the same risk. Rawls in fact argues for a more elaborate principle of justice in social organization, one that we havent seen yet, and he does so by employing a hypothetical model of a situation requiring people to choose the fundamental principles by which the basic institutions of their society are to be evaluated and organized. He argues that in the hypothetical conditions under which the choice of principles is to be made, only fair or just principles can be chosen. He argues that this is so because of the hypothetical conditions he imposes on the situation of the people making the choice. Then he argues that under those conditions people would choose the following conjunction of principles: The Equal Liberty Principle: Each person is to have the maximum civil liberties compatible with the same liberty for all. The Difference Principle: Inequalities are permissible only if (a) they can be expected to work to everyones advantage, especially to the advantage of the least well off, and (b) the positions, offices, roles, to which the inequalities attach are open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity. Libertarianism The Libertarianism, as the name suggests, emphasizes individual liberty as the central and indeed exclusive concern of social justice. A just society, according to the Libertarian, must grant and protect the liberty or freedom of each individual to pursue his desired ends. In the Libertarian view people are essentially rational end-choosers, to use our earlier term, and the kind of life appropriate to rational end-choosers requires them to be free to choose their own ends and free to pursue them without interference from others. This may seem to imply that the Libertarian holds that everyone should be able to do whatever he or she wants, but really the Libertarian holds no such view. The Libertarian view is that each person should have the same freedom to pursue his chosen ends, that each is therefore obligated to refrain from interfering with others in their freedom to pursue their ends, and that the function of the state is solely to protect each individuals freedom to pursue his chosen ends. The Libertarian therefore conceives of everyone as having certain rights, which protect his or her liberty to pursue a desirable kind of life. What is distinctive about Libertarianism is its conception of the rights that each individual has. The libertarian philosopher John Hospers states the fundamental libertarian principle in a variety of ways that it may clarify the Libertarian view to repeat here. He says (in The Libertarian Manifesto, reprinted in Justice: Alternative Political Perspectives, edited by James P. Sterba, Third Edition (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1999), pp. 24, 25): [E]very person is the owner of his own life[;] no one is the owner of any one elses life,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   and consequently every human being has the right to act in accordance with his own choices, unless those actions infringe on the equal liberty of other human beings to act in accordance with their choices No one is anyone elses master and no one is anyone elses slave. Other mens lives are not yours to dispose of. The rights recognized by the Libertarian include all the rights we called civil or personal liberties in our discussion of Rawls, but in regard to property the Libertarian favors a scheme in which each person has a quite unrestricted right to acquire property, including full capitalist rights to acquire ownership of the means of production and full rights of bequeathal. Libertarians emphasize property rights as essential to the liberty essential to the life of a rational end-chooser. Property does not mean only real estate; it includes anything that you can call your ownclothing, your car, your jewelry, your books and papers. The right of property is not the right to just take it from others, for this would interfere with their property rights. It is rather the right to work for it, to obtain non-coercively the money or services which you can present in voluntary exchanges.

Important Areas For Self Awareness Psychology Essay

Important Areas For Self Awareness Psychology Essay In a changing corporate world, strong leadership is becoming necessity for Business to survive.Complexity and chaos are creating emerging concerns in solving problem in business world, which leads more attention to leadership. This in turn has increased arguments how leadership is different from management. Management focus on responsibities and reaching goals effectively and efficiently which means it is the activities that keeps organization running(Huey,1994).However leadership is a role to influence others and guiding them to go in right direction to effectiveness(Bennis Nanus,1985).Three skills required for managers to create success organization includes establishing direction, motivating and inspiring people and aligning people (Cohn, 1998).This new leadership role, it puts more pressure on leaders to deal effectively in an environment in which knowledge is an economic resource. Knowledge includes explicit data and statistics as in history and tactic or inner sense. These are considered as key skills of leaders (White, Hodgson, Crainer, 1996).Self awareness is a foundation for tactic knowledge. In the White, et al(1996) self awareness involves the leaders being aware of their strengths and weakness and ability to accept them. Self analysis is a process of raising self awareness. So the key thing here is to collect sufficient and efficient information to make effective decision on ones future for a self managed development. By examining your strengths, weaknesses, skills and competences, a person can get a clear picture of what you are and what you have got. Important Areas for Self-Awareness Being a very complex and diverse creature Human beings need to have an understanding in many areas like psychological needs, personality traits, values, habits, emotions etc to become self aware. Understanding our personalities can help us to find the solutions in which we thrive and help us to avoid situation which will give us too much stress and mental pressure. It could be in personal or professional life. For instance an introvert person can find it more stressful in sales job than an extrovert person. So either the person has to learn skills to match the job requirement or should look for other opportunities. So Awareness of personality helps to make a decision that will lead to less stress to lead a happy life. Every person has its own personal values. Unawareness of own values may misguide to pay more attention to less unimportant work and feel guilty for not concentrating on priority works. Habits are the behaviours that are repeated routinely and automatically. Personal habit may affect our effectiveness. For instance if a person who is a manager doesnt have a habit to consult staff in decision making process may affect his ability to build staff members commitments. Knowing the psychological needs like esteem, affection, possessive, achievement, self actualization, power, control etc will help to understand their effect on interpersonal relationships. Emotional self-awareness is one of the five facets of emotional intelligence. Its about knowing ones feelings, what caused that feeling and how it impacts one thought and action. A person with high emotional self awareness can understand the internal processes of any emotional experience so can have a better control over it Managerial self Awareness There are many developmental assessments like multi-rater technique, Feedback process, filling questionnaire etc are designed with the underlying assumption that the awareness of any contradictions in how others see us and the perception of ourselves will lead to a greater degree of self awareness which in turn enhances the leadership behaviour. So its makes important to understand what is self awareness and its impact on managers performance. Piaget(1928) defended that a child is a self centered or egocentric being and so the perspective of others is largely ignored and are of no concern. Then there is gradual progression from self centered view to more socially aware view. Gradually a child learns to take others role in social interactions where self is viewed as an object(Mead, 1934).This process of role taking involves paying attention to needs, opinions, intentions, emotions and intellectual capabilities of others which are important characteristics for a child to become an actual communicator (Flavell, Botkin Fry, 1968). The child that is not actively taking part in this role taking behavior is not able to be an effective communicator (Piaget, 1928), because the concept of ones point of view is absent. Intellectual egocentrism can be defined as the inability to take other roles. The ability to search for the opinions of others and compare them to their own viewpoint in order to make comparisons is absent, and therefore hinders almost every part of the childs life. According to Flavell et. al (1968), the ability to assess what another persons capabilities and tendencies in a given situation are, paired with the ability to use this information to communicate more effectively is a skill that is developed with age. The move from intellectual egocentrism to consideration of perspective of others that occurs in childhood is of great importance in which manner a person perceives the self. Mead (1934) argues that for ones selfhood awareness, it is necessary to detach awareness from inside of oneself and use vantage points from another person. So taking the role of other is important in this context, as the concept of self consists of the perception of others. Duval and Wicklunds (1972) theory of objective self-awareness contradicts Meads theory by postulating that self-consciousness occurs because consciousness can focus its attention on the self in the same way that attention is focused on any object. So there is no way an individual is dependent on others point of view as in the sense that Mead intends. If the object-like nature of the self has been discovered, and stimuli in the environment are such that consciousness turns in the direction of the self, the person will become objectively self-aware (Duval Wicklund,p. 31, 1972). In other words, others point of view is not necessary to be self conscious, instead a mature individual has innate consciousness ability to focus in different directions. Duval and Wicklund (1972) define objective self-awareness as the state in which the self is the object of consciousness. On the other hand, subjective self-awareness is the state in which the self is not the focus of consciousness. So it shows the early work of Piaget, Flavell, Duval, and Mead in the current studies on the concept of self-awareness. From business standpoint different feedback techniques are important for manager self awareness. To be truly self aware a manager should not limit his thoughts,feelings to himself rather he should be aware of others standpoint and include this information in self appraisal(Duval Lalwani, 1999). This can be referred to as other-awareness (Figurski, 1987).So one must be first aware of others perspective in order to alter owns perspective and then adopt those in relation to self (Flavell, 1968).So self awareness is a practise to reflects on self and accurately access ones own behaviour and skills as they are visible in workplace interactions (Church, 1997). Many managers use the information they perceive to modify future behavior. Figurski (1987) identified four different kinds of person-awareness which all together will provide clarity to this study. As seen in Figure 1, target, perspective, and content are the three main dimensions of person-awareness.Perspective or tacit awareness (egocentric or allocentric)interacts with the target or focal awareness (self or other) to get content of awareness. Four categories of attention result: self-experience awareness, self image awareness, other-image awareness, and other-experience awareness. These can occur together in any combination or simultaneously. The allocentric perspective results when one focus on how other perceives them being self is the target. When others are the target, one is concern about how others feel. So it important to considers others internal experience before adopting their perspective. Therefore objective self-awareness is dependent upon the consideration of others experiences. Problems may arise for those who fail to integrate information from the egocentric and allocentric perspectives. If the others experience are not adequately considered, there will be less understanding between the self and others resulting in less effective communication (Wegner Giuliano, 1982). On the other hand,one who relates others experiences to themselves and integrates that information to perceive self should experience effective communication. The figures with frequency indicate that people are aware of others experiences almost 50% of the time. So self proves to be the dominant focus of attention. Although managers focus on self, they are not able to accurately judge their own behaviours as they may get biased. However, self-ratings are important as there are some characteristics like intelligence, high achievements status and locus of control are closely related to accurate self evaluation Mabe and West(1982). The greater the individuals level of self awareness the more similarity that is expected between the self assessment and the ratings provided by peers. The discrepancy between self- and other-ratings is also unclear. For example, an elevation in self-ratings could be due to lower ratings in others rather than over-estimation by the self. Atwater and Yammarino (1992) sought to determine how self-awareness affects the degree of relationship between leadership behaviour and its predictors, and between leader behaviour and performance outcomes. On comparison of self and other rating it was found that inaccurate self raters who overestimate their performance show poor performance than people who are more accurate self raters. Additionally, their peers rated over-raters lowest than the under-raters. So self-aware individuals appear to be using direct and indirect feedback to modify behaviour. Over-estimators, however, seem to be using this information to confirm or justify their self-misperception of over-achieving. The hypothesis that high performing managers are more self aware was tested using absolute average profile differences (d) as well as relative average item differences across each question. High performers showed significantly lower profile difference scores than average performers. This supports managerial self-awareness theory in that high performers display higher levels of self-awareness than average performers Church(1997). Individuals who are self-aware are more likely to respond to information from past experiences, thereby becoming more effective and displaying more leadership strengths. Individuals perceived by their managers as being high performers will be more self-aware. This can be concluded high performers receive higher congruence in self-other ratings compared to average performing managers. Therefore, there is a correlation between the overall leadership measure and higher congruence scores. If a manager is not self-aware, information on how others perceive the self is of no use. According to the Figurski (1987) model, the allocentric perspective must be utilized in order for one to be aware of how the self is considered by others. Failure to consider the similarity or differences between the self and others results in perspectives that vary. Effective communication is in turn hindered, because the understanding between people is not clear. Conversely, those who communicate effectively are using information gathered from interactions with others. It is therefore expected that managers with higher communication scores will display more congruent performance data (as reflected in self-rater agreement). Individuals tend to focus more on feedback they receive from their managers versus peers or others. Data source (self, manager, peer, and other) is expected to explain variance in self-awareness levels. Managers with emotional awareness are good decision makers. In these changing competitive environments intuitive decision makers can deal with situation with gut feeling and sixth sense. Emotionally aware persons can read their gut feeling and have better sixth sense that help them in decision making process. Jobs that dont suit a persons personality will give more stress than more compatible jobs. This is not like if your qualities are not compatible you cant go ahead with the job but you can put extra effort to develop the skills buy there are other alternative that will be less stressful. Self awareness is very powerful in revealing what is important for a person to improve performance. Understanding psychological needs increase motivation and get closer to the rewards that a person deserves. Understanding what click a person, reason of behaviour, reason of excitement etc can make what triggers others as well. So knowing to motivate yourself can help in know what motivate others. In Summary To perfect ones management skills the best way to start is getting self aware. With a sense of yourself and vision of what kind a person you are or what you want to become a plan of personal and professional development can be created, its helps to motivate a person, Help to manage stress and help in decision making and helps to lead and motivate others, which makes an effective leader. Knowing yourself is a slow process so we should try hard.